Environment Analysis Essay Example for Free

Environment Analysis Essay Organizations analyze the environment in order to understand the external forces so that it could help to develop effective responses to secure or improve their positions in the future. There existed a positive relation between environmental analysis and profits of an organization. Top management looked at information in two ways: viewing and searching information. This information needed to be evaluated and disseminated to strategists within the organization and to help top management to make decisions that could create strategic advantage for the organization to succeed in a changing environment 1. There were research evidences that showed that environmental analysis was linked with improved organizational performance. Hence, it remained insufficient to assure performance, without aligning information with strategy. The main debate in strategy and environment was concerned with the primary importance of the environmental analysis in strategy formulation and implementation. 84 Reserve Bank of India The Reserve Bank of India is fully owned by the Government of India. Initially it was viewed to bring the greater coordination of the monetary, economic, and financial policies. During fifties objectives of Reserve Bank of India underwent changes. It was recognized that Reserve Bank of India needs to take on direct and much more active role, in developing machinery for financial development in order to ensure flow of finance in the country. Reserve Bank emerged as a regulatory and a growth promoting institution. In the beginning limited to the agricultural sector, the Bank later covered small-scale industries as well. The affairs of Reserve Bank of India are governed by the central board of directors. The board is appointed by the Government of India according to the Reserve Bank of India Act. The preface of the Reserve Bank of India describes the basic functions of the Reserve Bank as: â€Å"to regulate the issue of Bank Notes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage† 2. The Reserve Bank? s freedom may be viewed broadly to the areas like management including personnel matters, financial aspects, and to conduct polices. Managerial freedom refers to the procedures for appointment, term of office and dismissal procedures of top central bank officials and the governing board. It also includes the extent and nature of representation of the Government in the governing body of the central bank. 85 Financial freedom relates to the freedom to decide the extent of Government expenditures directly or indirectly financed by the central bank? s credits. Finally, policy freedom is related to the flexibility given in the formulation and execution of monetary policy, under a given authorization. Reserve Bank of India has over the years been responding to changing economic circumstances. The Reserve Bank of India performs the function of financial supervisor under the guidance of Board for Financial Supervision. This board undertake consolidated supervision of the financial sector comprising of Commercial Banks, Financial Institutions, and Non-Banking Finance Companies. The key functions played by this board were restructuring of the system of Bank, introduction of off-site scrutiny, strengthening the role of legislative auditors, and strengthening the internal defences of supervised institutions. Currently this board focus on supervision of financial institutions and legal issues in Banks. Reserve Bank of India acts as a guard for Commercial Banks. Commercial Banks are required to keep a certain proportion of cash reserves with the Reserve Bank and Bank provide them various facilities like advancing loans, underwriting securities etc. Reserve Bank of India controls the volume of reserves of Commercial Banks and thereby determines the deposits and credit creating ability of the Banks. Whenever Commercial Banks need funds they get it from the Reserve Bank of India. Apart from playing the role of Banker to the Banks, Reserve Bank of India also play promotional role. The aim is to establish and assist the establishments of a number of financial intuitions for filling up of various financial institutional gaps in the rural and semi-urban areas. 86 Other roles played by Reserve Bank of India are: Reserve Bank stabilizes the external value of the national currency. The Reserve Bank keeps gold and foreign currencies and manages foreign currency in accordance with the controls imposed by the government. Reserve Bank of India facilitate external trade and payment and promote orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India. Reserve Bank has taken the responsibility of meeting directly or indirectly all legitimate demands of Commercial Banks under emergency conditions and to a certain extent Reserve Bank influence the credit policy of Scheduled Banks. The Reserve Bank has instrument of control in the form of the bank rate, which it publishes from time to time 3. A list of the Reserve Bank of India Committees from 1990- 2008 was prepared to get an impression about developments with respect to Banking Industry (Appendix- III). The recommendations resulted into remarkable changes in products and policies of Banking Organizations. Indian Bank’s Association (IBA) Indian Bank? s Association is a leading service organization of Banking Industry in India. It aims to integrate Banking and finance system catering to all financial requirements of customer? s. It was formed in 1946 with 22 members. Today Indian Bank? s Association has more than 159 members comprising of Public Sector Banks, Private Sector Banks, Foreign Banks (having offices in India), and Urban Co-operative Banks. 87 The main objectives of Indian Bank? Association are: promoting and developing sound and progressive Banking principles and practices in order to assist Banks to develop and implement new ideas and innovative Banking services, operations and procedures; organizing co-ordination and co-operation on procedural, legal, technical, administrative or professional problems and practices of Banks ; circulating statistical data, informati on, views and opinions on the Banking System; conducting Management Development Programs for Banks; promoting education and knowledge of the law and practices of Banking Industry; to help in projecting good public image of Banking Industry ; and to promote harmonious relationships by devising ways and means for involving Banking personnel? in the growth and development of Banking Industry. Indian Bank? s Association tries to achieve excellent service quality and customer care through its focused efforts to make each customers experience a pleasant one. Towards this end Indian Bank? s Association stressed on to build staff potential by each Bank to address customer challenges and asked Banks to design a performance management system, which focuses on rewarding the staff for delivering flawless customer service. In 2000, Indian Bank? s Association reviewed the charters of different Banks and brought out a „Model Citizen Charter? explaining to the customer? s what they could expe ct from the Bank? s as a matter of right. Apart from this Indian Bank? s Association brought „bankers fair practices? in 2004 which was adopted by all Banks voluntarily. It also came out with „fair practice code for credit card operation? and „model code for collection of dues and repossession of security? with special concern to customer? s voice about Banking practices 4. 88 Ministry of Finance Ministry of Finance in India governs the entire fiscal system of the Government of India. The three departments headed by the Ministry of Finance in India include: economic affairs, expenditure, and revenue. Thus, it mainly centralizes around the economic and financial issues pertaining in India. Ministry of Finance Government of India, Banking Division is managing Government policies related to the working of Banks and the term lending to financial institutions. This Division is headed by Secretary (Banking and Insurance) and operates through three subdivisions: Industrial Finance; Banking Operations; and Banking and Insurance. Each subdivision is headed by a Joint Secretary. The Banking Operations sub-division deals with legislative proposals described to Banks, non-banking financial companies, and other related matters like appointments of Chief Executives and Government nominee Directors and non-official directors on the boards of Public Sector Banks. In addition policy matters relating to Private Banks, Foreign Banks, and improvement of customer? service in Banks and redressal of customers grievances are also dealt with this Banking Operations sub-division of Ministry of Finance. This sub-division also deals with vigilance matters and appoints Chief Vigilance Officers (C VO? s) in the Public Sector Banks to enable the Public Sector Banks to meet the credit requirements for the productive sectors of the economy in proportion to the economic growth of the country. The Government is committed to infuse capital funds in Public Sector Banks as well 5. 89 Nature of Banking Industry Bank? s safeguard money and valuables and provide loans, credit, and payment services, such as checking accounts, money-orders, and cashier? s checks. Banks also offer investment and insurance products which they were once prohibited. There exists variety of models for cooperation and integration among finance industries some of these traditional distinctions between Banks, Insurance Companies, and Securities Firms has diminished. In spite of these changes, Banks continued to maintain and perform their primary role of accepting deposits and lending funds from these deposits. Banks securely save the money of depositors, provide checking services, and lend the funds raised from depositors to consumers. Bank? s today are in a wide range of sizes, from large Global Banks to Regional and Community Banks. These Global Banks are involved in international lending and foreign currency trading, in addition to the more typical Banking services. Working Environment Employee? in a typical branch work weekdays, whereas in few Banks sometimes Banks were opened until late evenings or were open on Saturday morning? s and in few even on Sundays. Supervisory and managerial employee? s, usually work substantially longer hours. Some B anks are expanding the working hours in their branches which are located at non- 90 traditional locations, such as shopping malls, which remain open on most evenings and weekends. Branch office jobs, particularly front-end positions, required continuous communication with customers. Some employees needed to work for longer hours in a confined space. Loan officers might need to travel to meet clients, or work evenings for their clients. Loan officers also check loan applications, and solicit new business for Banks. Financial Service Sales Representatives might also have to visit clients in the evenings and on weekends to go through the client? s financial needs. To improve customer service and provide greater access to Bank personnel? s, Banks have staffed Customer Service Representatives. The remaining Bank employees, working at the headquarters or other administrative offices usually worked in comfortable surroundings and worked for a standard workweek. In general, Banks are considered relatively safer place to work with respect to injuries and illness. Banks also encourage higher education and training for their employee? as Banks require creative and talented people to compete in the market place so as to reach to more number of customers. The basic premise here is to Study the relevant data and derive some information related to the Strategic Environment pertaining to Indian Banking Industry, which may be used in due course in a broader context if not in specific context. Environmental factors influencing Banking Industry are: 91 Economic Factors Indian economy has registered impressive growth of over 9 percent for successive three financial years and experienced restraint in 2008-09. This restraint was caused due to the downturn in the global economy. The year 2008-09 was the most deficient year after 1972. To fight against this slowdown Government of India and Reserve Bank of India took many fiscal as well as monetary actions. It was expected that Indian economy could again register a robust growth rate in the year 2009-10. As per the revised estimates released by the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), Indian economy grew by 7. 6 percent in 2008-09 and 9. 3 percent growth in the 2007-08 6. Banks lending to industries, personal loans and service sectors witnessed a slow down while, Banks lending to agriculture and allied activities moved upward during 2008-09. The income as well as the expenditures of Scheduled Commercial Banks viewed a slow down leading to decrease in the net profit. The Return on Assets (ROA) as an indicator of efficiency with which Banks deployed their assets remained to 1 percent in 2009. The Return on Equity (ROE) as an indicator of efficiency with which the Banks used capital increased to 13. 2 percent in 2009 from 12. 5 percent in 2008, indicating increased efficiency with which Banks used capital 7. 92 Growth of income of Scheduled Commercial Banks during 2008-09 decelerated to 25. 7 percent from 34. 3 in 2007-08, but was higher than the growth rate of 24. 4 percent in 200607. Expenditure of Scheduled Commercial Banks was 24. 1 percent in 2006-07, which increased to 33. 9 percent in 2007-08 and again decelerated to 26 percent in 2008-09. The operating profit of Scheduled Commercial Banks increased sharply by 33. percent during 2008-09 from 26. 8 percent in 2007-08 and 21. 3 percent in 2006-07 (Table II. 1). The net profit of Scheduled Commercial Banks also showed a significant increase of 36. 9 percent during 2007-08 as compared to 26. 9 p ercent in 2006-07, but it decelerated to 23. 5 percent during 2008-09(Table II. 1) TABLE II. 1 VARIATION IN INCOME-EXPENDITURE OF SCHEDULED COMMERCIAL BANKS 2006-07 Income Expenses Operating Profit Net Profit 24. 4 24. 1 21. 3 26. 9 2007-08 34. 3 33. 9 26. 8 36. 9 2008-09 25. 7 26. 0 33. 2 23. 5 Source: Reports on Trend and Progress of Banking in India 8, 9 The Bank Group-wise analysis is presented in Table II. 2. Even though the achievements of technological changes in Banking Industry in India were impressive but there is a need to take greater advantages from new technologies and information based system to maximize the coverage. Pricewaterhouse Coopers report 18 suggested that Banks should take up automation that would be a combination of centralized networks, operations and a Core Banking applications that included Business Intelligence (BI), Business Process Re-engineering (BPR), and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) that catered to operational and analytical business needs. The multi-channel Banking has acquired further dimensions to include third party payments such as utility bills through different channels including Automated Teller Machines and mobile banking. Bank? internal groups examined the issues, relating to rural credit and micro-finance opportunities in the sector with several possible options like smart card-based kisan credit cards, smart card solutions for self-help groups, Automated Teller Machines with local language and voice facility and call-center amenities with added services given by various Banks. Introduction of Kisan Credit Cards (KCCs) for providing credit to farmers had increased in the number a multi-fold since its inception in the late 1990? s and the total percentage share of these cards reached above forty percent 19. 97 Banks had transformed themselves into Universal Banks by adding new channels with lucrative pricing. Recent innovations in the form of total quality management, reengineering work processes, flexible systems have only one thing in common serving the customers well through improved operational efficiency. Consolidation in the Banking Industry followed by technological up-gradation acted as a key factor to boost the international competitiveness of the Indian Bank? s. Adapting technology had brought down the cost of transactions visibly and at the same time aided in business continuity. A Study mentioned that the cost per transaction through a branch was Rs. 66, cost per transaction ; through Automated Teller Machines was Rs. 22, and cost per transaction through internet was Rs. 0, ignoring the extreme variations owing to the investment cost and nature of transactions 20. This low cost benefit was opted by Commercial Banks as it helped them to reach to poor people, particularly those working in the rural areas and those who earn and spend cash. In order to handle their cash transactio ns Banks formulated two types of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). People could either use Automated Teller Machines that could accept, store or dispense cash or they could use a biometric device, which were mobile in nature. Infrastructure in India, has improved resulting into widespread use of Automated Teller Machines facility in villages as well. These machines consisted of additional features that included fingerprint use as a mean of authentication with a view that rural people were more comfortable with fingerprints than plastic cards. 98 The wide geographical coverage to access Banking related products and services with the help of mobile phone technology and the use of internet for banking transactions has gained superior usage. These modes of transactions required a safe and secure environment and provide a variety of options available for customers with different requirements. The numbers of mobile phone subscribers in India were about 261 million (March 2008). Towards this end, Reserve Bank of India issued guidelines for mobile banking transactions. Initially Banks offered the facility to their customers subject to a daily cap of Rs. 5,000 per customer for fund transfer and Rs. 10,000 per customer for transactions involving purchase of goods or services 21. Usage of internet banking in India is mainly dominated, by Private and Foreign Banks. Still, the number of individuals utilizing internet services has increased considerably. In 2006, about 12 percent of the 38. 5 million internet users in India used online banking and the figure for online banking increased to 16 million in 2007-08 22 . The average cost of servicing a customer through internet banking is the tenth of the services extended through a branch. Thus, there is a direct contribution to the profitability for a Bank and therefore, internet banking became a potential low cost alternative 23 . From customer? s viewpoint, internet banking is highly convenient as it help to avoid branch queues and makes customer free from depending on the inconsistent quality of services at the branch, which varied from person to person at the service desk. Internet Banking allowed customers to operate their accounts at their convenient hours instead of being dependent on the Banks working hours. Moreover, internet banking permitted customers to transact on a 247 basis from any part of the world. 99 Therefore, internet banking delivery channel has the potential to contribute directly towards the nation? prosperity as it allowed more people to join the Banking stream without adding cost and it is tremendously convenient to customers. Reserve Bank of India started measures to create multi-lingual links on its website for thirteen Indian languages on all matters concerning Banking in June 2007 24. In the recent years, the use of electronic payments has witnessed manifold increase reflecting increased adoption of technology. The electronic payment systems comprised of the large value payment systems like Real Time Gross Settlements (RTGS), National Electronic Funds Transfer (NEFT) and card based payment systems. The growth of volume of transactions directed through electronic payment has decelerated from 41. 4 percent in 2007-08 to 24. 8 percent in 2008-0925. The numbers and usage of Automated Teller Machines had gone up substantially during the last few years. Automated Teller Machines were primarily used for cash withdrawal and balance enquiry. In 2008-09, the total number of Automated Teller Machines installed by the Banks grew by 25. 4 percent. Automated Teller Machines of State Bank of India group registered a sharp growth of 34. 5 percent. While the Automated Teller Machines installed by new Private Sector Banks and Foreign Banks was 3 times of their respective branches 26, 27 . In March 2008, the population per automated teller machines in India was more than 29,500 as against the range of 1,000-9,500 in some of the other emerging market economies 28, 29 . In June 2009, Reserve Bank of India permitted Scheduled Commercial Banks to install off-site Automated Teller Machines at places identified by them, without any need to take permission from the Reserve Bank of India. Cash withdrawal from Automated Teller Machines of the Bank? s was made free of charges, April 2009 onwards. This made Automated Teller Machines more popular among customers. 100 Banks had deployed Information Technology solutions to facilitate automation in transaction management, reporting and risk management. Most of the Banks across the segments had already implemented Core Banking Systems. In the 2007, 85. 6 percent and in the 2008, 93. 7 percent Public Sector Banks were fully computerised 30, 31 . Other rograms such as internet based transactions, self-service kiosks, mobile banking were either underway or planned in near future by Public Sector Banks. Foreign Sector Banks and old and new Private Sector Banks in India, had progressed well in the areas of technology up-gradation i n operations. Technology up-gradation helped to introduce new products and services to enable Banks to improve the quality of service and value added services. Overall, Indian Banks score well with respect to technological adaption and the three key characteristic contributing towards the effective use of information technology in Banking Industry were: ? Factor Cost Advantage- information technology related labour costs in India remained cheaper as compared to other countries; ? Distribution Strategy- Indian Banks adopted a unique business model, acquiring customers rapidly with minimal technological investments; and ? Information Technology Governance- Indian Banks emphasized on information technology governance with the strong in-house Information Technology Division and a Chief Information Officer (CIO) directly reporting to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) in most cases. 101 It is information that made the Banking Industry stable. The pressure of competition and the need to improve productivity has generated a need for better information. In order to manage Banking operations to meet the needs of managers operating at tactical and strategic level and to improve their quality of decisions and policymaking processes within the Banks. Banks needed to set up an efficient and comprehensive Management Information System (MIS) without which asset and liability management and risk management were not possible. However, adoption of technology by Banks provided them competitive advantage in their operations but at the same time Banks became dependent on outsourcing for most of their technological applications. Therefore, Banks needed to employ caution to put in place mechanisms for vendor management. As an insecure system, could expose Banks towards serious operational regulatory and reputational risks. Banks have taken measures to safeguard the risk factors, emerging due to the use of technology. Towards this end, the Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT) helped Banks to bring in technology and enabled them to work in secured environment while operating Real Time Gross Settlements System, Centralised Fund Management System (CFMS), corporate e-mail, and internet banking. It also acted as a „certifying authority? for the Banking Sector in India by issuing Digital Certificates 32 . Still there exists need to ensure much more accountable systems with regard to online payments with uniform standards all over the world. 102 Social Factors Before nationalization of the Banks, their control was in the hands of the private parties and only big business houses and the effluent sections of the society gained benefits from the Banking in India. Thus, adoption of the social development model in the Banking Sector was necessary for speedy economic progress consistent with social justice in democratic political system. Bankers were directed to help economically weaker sections of the society and to provide needed finance to all the sectors of the economy with flexible and liberal attitude. India? s demography had undergone transition and the demographic trends 1950 – 2050 studied, illustrates that India? s fertility rate is consistently falling from the peak 5. 91 percent in the first decade after independence to 2. 76 percent today and expected to fall further to 1. 85 percent. Even the death rate also likewise showing consistent decline from its peak 25. 5 in 1950-55 to 8. 5 today and to the lowest of 7. 9 in 2020-2025 33 . This ignifies towards steady number of customers for Banking Sector with longer income in the coming years. Indeed, India would be one of the youngest nations with its median age lying between 25 a nd 30 years over the next 15 years (2010 to 2025) 34. This signified that India would enjoy its prevalence of young age population for almost four decades. Thus, India? s demographic transition needed to be exploited by Banking Sectors viewing it as an opportunity. 103 Increase in the per capita income of the working class population of India, enabled individuals to purchase goods, which were far out of their reach earlier. It also encouraged people to buy goods for their personal use and for their family. Today societies have shifted towards nuclear family, resulting into the growing needs for home consumer durables like washing machine, television, bike, car etc. This showed how we as a society have moved from a socialist society to a consumerist society. Understanding these changes and to use them as an opportunity Banks provided various types of loans to farmers, working women, professionals, education loan to the students, housing loans, and consumer loans. Even customers life style, their behaviour, and consumption patterns have changed which acted as an opportunity as well as a threat for Banking Industry. Deposits showed a subdued growth during this decade. In 2008- 09 personal loans by Commercial Banks was 12. percent with respect to 10. 8 in 2007-08 of which housing loan was 11. 6 percent in 2007-08 and 7. 4 percent in 2008-09 35 . This deceleration was observed in housing loans especially due to economy slow down. Literacy rate in India is low as compared to other developed countries. Illiterate people hesitate to transact with Banks. Therefore, this influenced negatively on Banking Industry. Nevertheless, there exists positive side of this as well that illiterate people trust more on Banks to deposit their money as they do not have market information they do not put money in stocks or mutual funds so they look Bank as their sole and safe alternative. For a common man Banks have emerged as the key players to provide variety of products and services like saving accounts, insurance, remittance and other facilities to the under privileged and the poor in rural, semi-urban and urban areas or socially disadvantage as well as the small and medium enterprise sector . 104 On the other hand Banks deal with big clients or big companies which required personalized banking as these customers do not believe in running and waiting in queues for getting their work done . To these customers bankers provided special provisions and at times benefits like individualised hosting to these types of customers. It was brought to the notice of the Reserve Bank of India that visually challenged persons were facing problem in availing Banking facilities. Reserve Bank of India in June 2008 advised all Banks to ensure that all facilities such as cheque book including third party cheques, Automated Teller Machine facilities (at least one third of new Automated Teller Machine installed with Braille key pads and located strategically), net banking, locker, and credit cards to be provided to visually challenged persons without any discrimination 36. Banks related crimes are rising. These crimes included the typical ones such as Bank robbery, false statement to a Bank in order to obtain loan, false entry in a Banks book, Bank bribery, and Bank fraud. The other new types of crimes have also emerged like accessing to the whole or any part of information technology system without rights. These also included manipulation of Banking system, data alteration, or data destruction to make unauthorized identity theft with reference to Automate Teller Machines. Indian police has initiated by opening of special cyber cells across the country and started educating the personal against these crimes. 105 Political Factors Before 1990, the lack of accountability and lack of profit motive in Nationalized Banks was credited to political interference. After the economic reforms of 1991, the Indian Banking Industry entered into the new horizon of competiveness, efficiency, and productivity. Reserve Bank of India? s control system and its monetary policies acted as a major weapon in India? financial market. However, sometimes looking into the political advantage of a particular party, Government declares some measures for their benefits like short-term agricultural loans to attract farmer? s votes affecting the profits of the Banks. Even according to Banking Banana Skins, survey 2010 political interference was considered as the greatest risk for Banking Industry 37. In the Budget provisions, Finance Minister increased the farm credit target for 2009-10 at Rs. 3, 25,000 crore compared to Rs. 2, 87,000 crore in 2008-09. The Union Budget 200910 extended the debt waiver scheme by six more months for farmers owing more than 2 hectare of land. The Union Budget 2008-09 allowed farmers 25 percent rebate on 75 percent of their overdue repayment within the stipulated period 38 . Government also announced setting up of a task force to examine the issues of debt taken by a large number of farmers in some regions of Maharashtra from private moneylenders who were not covered under the loan waiver scheme 39 . With Government bearing this burden, Banks would not be affected much. As Government assured to help, Banks to clear their most stubborn non-performing assets accounts on Banks Book. In addition, the emphasis on expanding network with Automated Teller Machines, opening of Banking centre in unbanked blocks were some of the positive moves taken by Government. 106 Political interference by the leftist political parties claimed that various regulations with respect to Foreign Banks would benefit only those Banks, which intend to make a quick jump by providing high-profile corporate services, instead of those who wish to intensify their rural operations. Left political parties also cautioned that foreign players could increase their holding size in a particular Bank that would lead to an imbalance of power. Banks under the conventional system of recovery of loans had a considerable amount of money blocked in form of unproductive assets. Hence, to beat this difficulty parliament enacted Recovery of Debts to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993 also refereed as Debt Recovery Act. This Act created a separate apparatus in the order of Debt Recovery Tribunals, which were handed over the responsibility of administering disputes pertaining to non-payment of debts. As this legislation was general in nature, another legislature by Parliament was enacted , referred as Securitization Act with an objective to give the Banks, more power over defaulting borrowers 40,41. Unions The post nationalization era in the Banking Industry in India, particularly in the Public Sector, witnessed consolidation of trade unions. All the nine unions had all-India presence in the Banking Industry. Five workers unions and four officers unions represented almost 100 percent of the workforce in the industry and joined hands to form a United Forum of Bank Unions (UFBU). United Forum of Bank Unions comprised of All India Bank Employees Association, (AIBEA), All India Bank Officers Confederation (AIBOC), 107 National Confederation of Bank Employees (NCBE), All India Bank Officers Association (AIBOA), Bank Employees Federation of India (BEFI), Indian National Bank Employees Congress (INBEC), Indian National Bank Officers Congress (INBOC), National Organization of Bank Workers (NOBW) and National Organization of Bank Officers (NOBO) 42. Representatives of unions were encouraged to give suggestions. However, in many cases undue interference of unions in decision-making has adversely affected, leading to the deterioration in discipline, efficiency, and performance effectiveness. With the growing strength of these organizations, the issues relating to employees interests were no longer determined by Bank? s managements alone. The massive introduction of technology into the industry made union policies defensive. Unions focused almost entirely on the immediate consequences of technological change on the workforce, especially the aspect of possible job losses. Employees in Public Sector Banks were repulsive to move from one table to another of the same branch. Now the trade unions seem to be willing to allow mobility for employees within a district as mergers enforced them to move from one state to another. Other issues taken up by unions were like introduction of New Pension scheme and variable pay which were resolved with the help United Forum of Bank Unions. Banks unions are also involved in demanding salary hikes, job losses, disinvestments in Public Sector, and issues related to violation of labour laws, and allocation of funds for schemes for unorganised workers. 108 After attempting, the macro level environmental analysis of Indian Banking Industry a micro functional level Human Resource Environmental Analysis has been attempted with the help of SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats), it would help to further develop strategic viewpoint about the industry (Table II. 4). TABLE II. 4 HR SWOT ANALYSIS WITH RESPECT TO INDIAN BANKING INDUSTRY STRENGTHS ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Educated Manpower Higher Compliance Amongst Employees Experienced Employees Training Infrastructure Availability Safe Working Environment Responsiveness to Needful Change Strong Regulatory Institutional Framework ? ? ? ? ? OPPORTUNITIES Liberalization of Banking Sector Preferred Industry for Employment Availability of Multi-specialist staff Technology for Improved Interpersonal and Communication Skills Workforce Diversity WEAKNESSES ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Limited Technology Skills Repetitive Tasks Structure Inadequate Remuneration for Attracting Talent Lacking Career Growth Path Rigid Recruitment Policies Hierarchal Structure Rigid Wage Negotiation Process Leadership Deficit at Senior Level ? ? ? ? ? ? ? THREATS Movement of Skilled and Quality Staff Difficulty in Hiring Highly Qualified Youngsters Trend Towards Downsizing Changing Workforce Demographics High Staff Cost Overheads Changing Employees Expectations Entrenched Trade Unionism 109 Key Concerns for Indian Banking Industry The macro level analysis of Banking Industry and micro level analysis with respect to Human Resource functions helped to identify the key concerns related to the Banking Industry. Competition in Banking Industry is very high as Banks are fighting for same share of customers. There are many Banks and non-financial institutions which gave rise to intensified competition. Amongst these, there existed relatively no differentiation in services and every Bank tried to copy each other? s services and technology which increased the level of competition. Competition from the non-Banking financial sector is increasing rapidly as there are substitutes like mutual funds, stocks (shares), government securities, debentures, gold, and real estate acting as a high threat of substitutes. The continuous deregulation has made the Banking Market extremely competitive with greater autonomy, operational flexibility, decontrolled interest rate, and liberalized norms for foreign exchange. The deregulation of the industry coupled with decontrol in interest rates had led to the entry of a number of players in the Banking Industry 43. Alliances and takeovers had occurred on a transatlantic basis. The market share for financial services that Banks hold had declined, while securities firms, mutual funds, and finance companies has grown 44 . Banking Sector needs to build up a strong and efficient financial system by emphasizing on risk based management. 110 In Banking Sector, customers have high bargaining power due to the presence of very large number of alternatives. Banks together with the specialized financial companies that provide finance to customers are available. Recently it was observed that depositors had withdrawn funds from Private and Foreign Banks and invested their money with Public Sector Banks as the cost of switching from one Bank to another was low and almost all Banks provided undifferentiated services. Today customer? s have more information and better understanding about the market, Banks have to be more competitive and customer friendly to serve them. To retain customer? s and market share, Banks started contemplating on building strong relationship with customers. United Bank of India created a revolution in Banking Industry by opening up a boutique branch in Pune in November 2007, as its priority was to provide services to the high net worth customers. Thus, United Bank also recognized the needs of high net worth individuals different from the other customers. United Bank organized corporate golf tournament for customers, music concerts, and screening of Mani Ratnam directed film „Guru? 45 . Bank? s top management has started carefully evaluating the impacts for their actions. Recently, before cutting jobs in Private and Foreign Banks, Human Resource managers tried to assess reactions beforehand and they came out with certain proactive steps. Banks persistently worked in the interest of the Society. This chapter focussed on the environment analysis which is, undoubtedly, required for strategy formulation, and at the same is relevant as a backdrop for strategy implementation. For instance, the needful Human Resource Practices have to be continuously evolved and implemented against the ever-changing macro and micro environment of the Banking Organizations. 111 REFERENCES 1. Wei, C. C. (2001) Environmental Scanning as Information Seeking and Organizational Learning, Information Research, 7(1). 2. About us retrieved on 26 December 2010. 3. Goyal, O. P. (1979) Financial Institutions and Economic Growth of India, New Delhi: Light and Life Publishers. 4. About Us retrieved on 26 December 2010. 5. retrieved on 28 December 2010. . Reserve Bank of India (2008) Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India 2007-08, lt; www. rbi. orggt; retrieved on 25 December 2009. 7. Reserve Bank of India (2008) Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India 2007-08, p. 115. 8. Reserve Bank of India (2008) ibid (7), p. 114. 9. Reserve Bank of India (2009) Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India 2008-09, p. 125. 10. Reserve Bank of India (2008) ibid (7). 11. Reserve Bank of India (2009) ibid (9). 12. Reserve Bank of India, (2008) ibid. (7), p. 115. 13. Reserve Bank of India, (2009) ibid. (9), p. 125. 14. Chandrasekhar, C. P. (2005) What is Happening to Indian Banking? Frontline, 22(4): 12 – 25. 15. Reserve Bank of India (2008) ibid. (7), p. 116. 16. Reserve Bank of India (2009) ibid. (9), p. 127. 112 17. Reserve Bank of India (2009) ibid. (9), p. 142. 18. PricewaterhouseCoopers Report (2006) retrieved on 25 December 2009. 19. Raju, S. (2010) Financial Inclusion: Enabling Inclusive Growth. The India Economy Review, 7:42-49. 20. Sekar, G. V. Emerging Trends in Technology Adoption by Indian Banks and IT Governance – A Practical Guide, lt; http://www. cab. org. in/Lists/ Knowledge% 20Bank/ Attachments/43/Emerging%20Trends. pdfgt; retrieved on 3 June 2008. 21. Reserve Bank of India (2008) ibid. (7), p. 81. 22. Chandrashekaran, N. (2009) CII Banking Tech Summit, lt; http://www. financial express. com/news/indian-banks-behind-global-peers-in-technologypwc/438064gt; retrieved on 24 March 2009. 23. Jayawardhena, C. and Foley, P. (2000) Changes in Banking Sector The Case of Internet Banking in UK. Journal of Internet Research: Networking and Policy, 10(1):19-30. 24. Rao, R. (2000) Banking @ The Speed of Thought, Business India, October 30November 12: 71-108 25. Reserve Bank of India (2009), ibid. (17). 26. Reserve Bank of India (2009) ibid. (9), p. 141. 27. Reserve Bank of India (2009) ibid. (9), p. 261. 28. Reserve Bank of India (2008) ibid. (7), p. 130. 29.

Theories of Realism for State Behaviour Explanations

Theories of Realism for State Behaviour Explanations â€Å"How well do the different types of realism (classical, structural and neoclassical) explain state behaviour?† Word count: 2,765 Seminar Tutor: Aijan Sharshenova Realism is a fundamental practise of international politics, a key theory in this area of study as it helps us to understand the contemporary world, as well as the challenges that we now face. Realism helps to emphasise this role of nation-state with the belief that all states are motivated by their own self-interests, prioritising territorial integrity and securing political autonomy. The relations within domestic politics and international relations are conversely discussed by different realists, from Thucydides (460-395BC) to E.H. Carr (1892-1982) showing substantial differences within realism itself. Firstly, classical realism derives from Niccolà ² Machiavelli (1469-1527), Thucydides and Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) to name but a few. The study of politics during this time was set on the foundations of human nature. Thucydides presented his belief through dialogue texts, presenting how human nature has made us crave power above all else. On the other hand, structural realists, such as Kenneth Waltz (1924-2013) believed that power is a means to an end but the ultimate aim of an individual, as well as state, is survival. Both types of realism theories have undergone much critic in the past few decades, with only a relatively recent view surfacing. This is known as neoclassical realism, a combination of classical and structural (‘neorealism’) realism, focusing on systematic variables of internal and external factors. My line of argument during this essay will be that neoclassical realism holds the most viable explanation for state behaviour, due to its contemporary analysis and consideration of systematic pressures through various variables, nationally and internationally. I will set out first by discussing the classical realism theory, in which I shall discuss the influence of human nature, interest and justice and how these internal factors influence the states behaviour. Secondly, I will discuss structural realism and the theories basis of system structure of the world states, which do not consider internal factors. Finally, I will critically assess whether neoclassical realism can truly explain state behaviour, despite its limitations. Although there is not a unified set of beliefs of realism, it is considered by all that the international system is an anarchical environment, which is important to incorporate in my essay because it in turn demonstrates how states do not have anyone to adhere to in the international system due to lack of hierarchal figures. The anarchical system is supported by Waltz’s description of international politics as ‘being flicked with particles of government and alloyed with elements of community – supranational organizations whether universal or regional, alliance, multinational co-operations, network of trade and what not. International political systems are thought of as being more or less anarchic.’ (1979:114)1. This then further presents how internal and external factors are needed to understand state behaviour, which appears to be a major flaw in the understandings of classical and structural realism. I will later discuss whether neoclassical realism is ab le to account for the changes in the nation-states behavioural patterns due to these intervening variables. Classical Realism Classical realism is essentially about power, which is measured through material capabilities. When striped back to the simplest of social organisations, it becomes the tribal groups and their competition for resources, which show that power (struggles) have always been part of society. This is then interlinked, by Hobbes, with the comparison of the individual and the state – where human nature is compromised of primarily power and the essence to survive, known as the ‘state of nature’, correlating to what the classical realist believe to be the states priorities. This is furthered by the lack of sovereignty in the international system, making it therefore anarchical, reducing state behaviour to its own national interest and its own security in order to maintain its power and survival. The idea of this egotistical self-interest was first developed by Thucydides, who understood human nature as self-interest will overcome moral principles. In Book 1 of The History o f the Peloponnesian War , during a debate in Sparta, Thucydides states how the considerations of right and wrong have ‘never turned people aside from the opportunities of aggrandizement offered by superior strength.’ (Chapter 1:76).2 Although this view disregards the teleological notions of political progress, it is supported by the period of origination during the interwar period. Leading on from this, Thucydides, as well as Hans Morgenthau, further disregards the distinction between international and domestic systems, encouraging us to understand them as similar outcomes. Thucydides uses both internal and external developments alike as reason for state behaviour. For example, when communal bonds within a system are strong, as in pre-Peloponnesian War in Greece, the laws help to restrain actors. Therefore, when community breaks down, so does this order due to the loss of legitimacy in influence. This coincides with Aristotle’s observation that law ‘has no power to compel obedience beside the force of habit.’3 This idea of community is furthered by the classical realist’s belief that justice is the foundation of relationships in order to create these communities where security and influence are insured. Thucydides relates his text to the importance of interest and justice and how they come hand in hand – with the relationship becoming more acute in response to war. An example of this is in Pericles’ Athens’ which Thucydides pointed out to be under a facade of democracy rule, when in fact it was just one man (Pericles) ruling. The democratic ideology that came with this rule caused class tensions, which heightened over time, resulting in the vicious overthrow of ‘democracy’. After this, justice then became the foundations for what was known as a more peaceful nation.2 Classical realists find justice an important influence as it helps to determine the understanding and responses actors have with one another. Even though influence can be bribed, its expense for the stereotypically short-lived maintenance of it, makes it a foolish investments. Therefore, policies that have accepted ethical approaches create a respected legitimacy that is more likely to be followed, creating a more efficient sphere of influence, which can also be translated to power. To add to this, the commitment to justice was one that showed the strength of self-restraint an actor has. For instance, weaker states behave due to the external constraints that they face, whereas more powerful states are more inclined to think they are in control. Yet, this causes irrationality of the leaders, encouraging them to make hazardous decisions. These miscalculations often lead to catastrophe, with key examples of Athens, Napoleon and Hitler. Thus, internal and external constraints are closely interconnected, as self-restraint prompts behaviour in accordance with the principles of justice, sustaining the hegemonic structure that makes sufficient influence possible. However, classical realists fell short of including all the important aspects of international relations, including that co-operation that can occur between nations. Looking from a contemporary view, with the inclusion of globalization, classical realism seems very rigid and outdated. Furthermore, the statist system has been proven wrong by Transnational Corporations (TNC’s) who in fact have a larger economy than some smaller states, giving them more power even in material capabilities, with some corporations having a form of military. This also shows that states cannot be considered unitary actors. Structural Realism Kenneth Waltz, the founder of structural realism, describes the international system through each state considering the risk and cost-analysis of irrational action, which subsequently results in stability being maintained. Although the system is not in a constant state of war, it is thought of as ‘each state decides for itself whether or not to use force; war may break out at any time.’ (Waltz 1979:111).1 Conflict is always possible in anarchy, although the relative chance of it occurring is what is important, rather than the possibility of it. Therefore, structural realists believe that a state should never let down its guard and always be prepared for the worst case scenario. This results in what realists believe that states need to make sure they always have military expenditure at full potential in order to be able to defend against possible aggressors. Structural realists believe that states need to adopt the worst-case focus in order to ensure the states don’t get caught off-guard, which could be argued, would have even heavier costs. ‘Political competition among states is much more dangerous business than economic intercourse; it can lead to war, and war often means mass killings on the battlefield and even mass murder of civilians. In extreme cases, war can even lead to total destruction of the state.’1 Consequently, defensive programmes are thought of as the only dependable insurance against outside aggression, as it may help to reduce the calamities. Balancing this behaviour and attitudes with co-operation between states is thought to be conditioned by the lack of hierarchal authority in the international system, with the constant threat that force could be used. An example of this is the regional trade blocs in the contemporary developing world. Structural realism explains that states are reluctant to co-operate due to fears, but they do believe co-operation is possible although only on the front that it is largely constrained. Moreover, this theory explains that developing countries would be the most inclined to not co-operate due to the security issues from in those regions. Yet, contrastingly to this, many co-operations have been set up, such as ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (AFTA) and Southern Cone Common Market. Even despite the fact that military expenditures have increased rapidly in the last few years, in addition to the territorial disputes, these countries are still able to co-operate which strongly contradicts structural realism’s theory of state behaviour. Such behaviour is consistent with the view that economic gain outweighs the probability of security due to the promoted increased international competitiveness superseding relative gains. (Economic benefits of the trade blocs include attracting Foreign Direct Investment, increased markets and reduced transaction costs). Despite the fact that structural realists are the leading critics to classical realists for their explanations being deduced by human nature, the characteristics of actors in structural realism is in the sense of ‘fear’ – part of the state of nature, as described by Hobbes. Morgenthau argues that actors will take advantage of weaker states, hence why structural realists believe that military preparedness is the only guaranteed assurance. Both areas of the arguments view the world pessimistically, interlinking them with the evidence that structural realism doesn’t actually move beyond human nature, rather just replaces the idea of ‘power’ with ‘fear’. This shows the two perspectives weaknesses as both focus on only one sole notion – rather than the intervening variables that are at play in domestic and international politics due to the variations of dynamics. Another raised point of the structural realism theory is that a state’s first concern is to maximise its likelihood of existence, thus if focusing on short term security has negative long term repercussions, it still must go ahead in order to maintain survival. Although, a rational state would only discount these future repercussions if the security pressures are not that strong, meaning the long term affects are given priority. This view is shaped by the ideal that states are shaped by the possibility and probability that conflict can outbreak at any time, hence the need for capability to deal with the contingency that may arise from the security issues. Nevertheless, Waltz recognises that states have other important intentions and therefore may not take all conceivable steps to achieve short term security, but security matters take priority over economic capabilities. Neoclassical Realism Neoclassical realism is a relative recent theory that has been accounted by Wohlforth (1993), Gildeon Rose (1998), Zakarua (1998) and Schweller (2006) to name but a few. This theory combines structural and classical realism in order to incorporate both external and internal variables with the dynamic of the international and domestic systems. Rose described neoclassical realism in the World Politics Review (1998) as an ‘impact of such power capabilities on foreign policy is indirect and complex because systematic pressures must be translated through intervening variables at the unit level.’ This makes the theory more contemporary and relevant due to its inclusion of more than one sole motive. Classical realism mainly focuses on the domestic system, meaning the theory cannot be used to explain why different actors act similarly. In contrast, neoclassical Zakarua (1998) made a clear distinction between national and state power, with the claim that the systems are more multi-dimensional than just its material capabilities.’By taking into account both domestic and international constraints on the state, and by articulating both the domestic and international choices available to the state, we are able to provide a more comprehensive integrated approach to the analysis of state behaviour’. (Mastanduno, Lake, Ikenberry1989).4 Essentially, neoclassical realists state that the reason behind why different actors act similarly can only be understood if the intervening role of domestic factors is in play. Therefore, more contemporary realist state that power cannot be used to express all dimensions of politics, and that this is not just measured by its material capabil ities due as they are not always mobilized to their full efficiency. Additionally, neoclassical realists emphasise the importance of the role of the state. This contrasts sharply to structural realism, who isolate the states’ role, making it unitary and a different body to the rest of society. However, neoclassical realists recognise the fundamental role that the statesman have as they are part of the intervening variables with the power to intervene, implement and assess changes in the foreign policy. Accounting for the changes over time and variations of different states countering external constraints, which may result in a need for a change in foreign policy due to the dynamism of today’s globalisation. This also relates to the contemporary theory’s inclusion of not only the weaker and stronger states, but also the ‘middle powers’4 – which is discarded by both classical and structural realism. The understanding that smaller (weaker) powers focus is mainly on their domestic politics is because external const raints means their power internationally is smaller – thus the need to concentrate domestically in order to build this material power. Alternatively, larger power’s focus is also domestic, especially its constraints. This is due to the greater power enabling them more freedom internationally, resulting in the focus being internal and on their own constraints that they face. This then leads onto middle powers being the only ones that face domestic, as well as international, focus on constraints. Yet, this means that the neoclassical theory, which deals with internal and external factors to justify state behaviour, is therefore mainly relevant towards middle powers because they are the ones that focus on both systems. Conclusion Realism does not have a unified set of assumptions about state behaviour, granting this, dividing realism does help to lead to a more precise conceptualization of the theory and provides a better understanding in which the variation of impacts of differential material factors help to explain state behaviour. Structural and classical realism, both alike, are theories that are inflexible even though they claim to be operative under all circumstances. Structural realism in particular, appears substandard in demonstrating state behaviour due to the fact it is presented in the terms of being relevant in all situations at all times. Not only this, but the presentation of the international system as a relentless competition for security and power, shown through material capabilities like technology, geography and economical advantages, becomes the biggest flaw in itself. This is because of the multidimensional system that we live in today, a cause of globalisation as states and actors are interconnected more than ever. Neoclassical realism helps to present this, embodying systematic and domestic level of analysis, making it more relevant to contemporary systems behaviour. However, neoclassical realism, as well as structural and classical realism, are hard to use to explain state behaviour unless the application has more knowledge of the given actor/state in order to make the assumption more relevant due to the varying degree of nations. References Baylis, J., Smith, S. Owens, P., 2013. The Globalization of World Politics: An Introdctuion to International Relations, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Burchill, Scott, et al., Theories of International Relations, London, Palgrave, third edition, 2005. Kenneth Waltz (1979).A Theory Of International Politics. 2nd ed. United States of America: Waveland Press. 111-114. Mastanduno, M., Lake, D.A., Ikenberry, J.G. (1989), Toward a Realist Theory of StateAction,International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Dec., 1989), pp. 457-474 Morgenthau, Hans, ‘A Realist Theory of International Politics’ in Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 5ed 1973). Thucydides/Richard Crawley, The History of the Peloponnesian War, (Australia: J.M. Dent and Co., 1903) https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thucydides/crawley/index.html>{accessed 31st September 2014} 1Kenneth Waltz (1979).A Theory Of International Politics. 2nd ed. United States of America: Waveland Press. 111-114. 2Thucydides/Richard Crawley, The History of the Peloponnesian War, (Australia: J.M. Dent and Co., 1903) https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/thucydides/crawley/index.html>{accessed 31st September 2014} 3 Burchill, Scott, et al., Theories of International Relations, London, Palgrave, third edition, 2005. 4 Mastanduno, M., Lake, D.A., Ikenberry, J.G. (1989), Toward a Realist Theory of StateAction,International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Dec., 1989), pp. 457-474

Fusion :: essays research papers

Fusion reactions are inhibited by the electrical repulsive force that acts between two positively charged nuclei. For fusion to occur, the two nuclei must approach each other at high speed to overcome the electrical repulsion and attain a sufficiently small separation (less than one-trillionth of a centimeter) that the short-range strong nuclear force dominates. For the production of useful amounts of energy, a large number of nuclei must under go fusion: that is to say, a gas of fusing nuclei must be produced. In a gas at extremely high temperature, the average nucleus contains sufficient kinetic energy to undergo fusion. Such a medium can be produced by heating an ordinary gas of neutral atoms beyond the temperature at which electrons are knocked out of the atoms. The result is an ionized gas consisting of free negative electrons and positive nuclei. This gas constitutes a plasma.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plasma, in physics, is an electrically conducting medium in which there are roughly equal numbers of positively and negatively charged particles, produced when the atoms in a gas become ionized. It is sometimes referred to as the fourth state of matter, distinct from the solid, liquid, and gaseous states. When energy is continuously applied to a solid, it first melts, then it vaporizes, and finally electrons are removed from some of the neutral gas atoms and molecules to yield a mixture of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons, while overall neutral charge density is maintained. When a significant portion of the gas has been ionized, its properties will be altered so substantially that little resemblance to solids, liquids, and gases remains. A plasma is unique in the way in which it interacts with itself with electric and magnetic fields, and with its environment. A plasma can be thought of as a collection of ions, electrons, neutral atoms and molecules, an photons in which some atoms are being ionized simultaneously with other electrons recombining with ions to form neutral particles, while photons are continuously being produced and absorbed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Scientists have estimated that more than 99 percent of the matter in the universe exists in the plasma state. All of the observed stars, including the Sun, consist of plasma, as do interstellar and interplanetary media and the outer atmospheres of the planets. Although most terrestrial matter exists in a solid, liquid or gaseous state, plasma is found in lightning bolts and auroras, in gaseous discharge lamps (neon lights), and in the crystal structure of metallic solids.

Macbeth and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 Essay examples -- Comparison Co

Macbeth and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 Shakespeare’s Macbeth was influenced by the gunpowder plot of 1605. The equivocation that was inspired by this event played an important role in the play. The general theme of Macbeth reflects the mood of society at the time that it was written. This relationship is a direct reflection of the mimetic theory. This paper will examine the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 and the role of equivocation in the subsequent prosecutions during the time that Shakespeare was writing Macbeth, and show how Macbeth was influenced by the event. On the night of November 4, 1605, an important discovery was made in London: thirty-six barrels of highly explosive gunpowder, ready to blow a hole in the earth, were discovered directly below the House of Parliament in Westminster. Had the authorities not foiled this attempt, Parliament would have been destroyed, killing the members of Parliament as well as King James I of England (whose reign had only begun in 1603), and sending the English government into shambles. In modern day context, Garry Wills suggests that this event would be as if an atomic bomb was discovered under the United States Capitol Building during the heat of the Cold War: How to suggest the scale of it? For a parallel we might imagine America in the 1950s, and suppose that a communist cell – made up of Americans acting under foreign direction – has planted a nuclear device under the United States Capitol. It is timed to go off when the President is addressing both houses of Congress. All Executive Officers will be there, as well as all justices of the Supreme Court. The three branches of Government will be wiped out. Every Constitutional successor to the President will die with him.1 One of ... ...ent as of April 8, 2000) Boot, Jeremy. Guy Fawkes – Treason in 1605. Internet WWW page, at URL: <http://www.innotts.co.uk/~asperges/fawkes/> (version current as of March 5, 2000) Friedlander, Ed, M.D. Enjoying "Macbeth", by William Shakespeare. Internet WWW page, at URL: <http://www.pathguy.com/erf/macbeth.htm> (version current as of March 5, 2000) Vaidya, Suchit and Chris Harrison. Macbeth.com. Internet WWW page, at URL: <http://www.igs.net/~chrisharr/macbeth/index2.html> (version current as of March 5, 2000) Weller, Philip. Macbeth Navigator: Themes: Equivocation. Internet WWW page, at URL: <http://www.clicknotes.com/macbeth/Equiv.html> (version current as of March 5, 2000) Wuestenhagen, Greg. Guy Fawkes and his day. Internet WWW page, at URL: <http://www.bcpl.lib.md.us/~cbladey/guy/html/toc.html> (version current as of March 5, 2000)

Argument that Autism is Characterized by the Lack of Theory of Mind Ess

Autism is a rare developmental disorder that affects approximately four in every ten thousand children (Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith, 1985). Employing a clinical perspective, Kanner (1943) (as cited in Sachs, 1995) was the first to provide a description on the disorder of autism. However, in the 1970s, Wing (1970) (as cited in Sachs, 1995) applied a cognitive perspective in describing the mental structure of autism. This essay will therefore argue that autism is characterized by the lack of theory of mind (Premack & Woodruff, 1978, as cited in Baron-Cohen et al., 1985), which is a cognitive mechanism. It will further outline empirical evidence derived from the review of two studies, collectively known as false belief tasks. The Sally-Anne task and the Smarties task, in particular, will be discussed and interpreted in support with the arguing thesis. There is no true causal definition of autism at a biological level, however, autism has been recognised to be a developmental disability affecting cognitive processing (Frith, 1997). The key behavioural deficits that characterises autism are, the inability to interact in social situations, impairments with comprehending verbal and non-verbal communication and the lack of understanding pretend and imaginative play (Wing, 1970, as cited in Sachs, 1995). Other behavioural characteristics contributing to the diagnosis of autism are, engagement in repetitive automatic movements and activities, preference to be alone, displays of self-destruction and aggressive behaviour, sensitivity to external stimuli, attacks of anxiety, and some display savant abilities (Sachs, 1995; Frith, 1997). Baron-Cohen et al. (1985) applied Wimmer and Perner’s (1983) puppet play paradigm to test the hypothesis that autistic children are unable to attribute beliefs to others and are incapable of representing mental states. The participants comprised of 20 autistic children, 14 children with Down syndrome, and 27 normal preschool children. The procedure for this false belief task included setting up two doll protagonists, Sally and Anne. Initially, a naming question was asked to ensure participants could distinguish between the dolls. Sally then placed a marble in her basket. Sally exited the scene, and Anne takes the marble from Sally’s basket and placed it in her box. Sally later returned, and the test question asked by the experimenter... ... results, it is shown that four-year-old normal children understood the concept that if a person like them, has not been exposed to the situation yet, they will give the obvious answer like them. However, autistic children, based on the fact that they lack the ability to represent mental states of others, and therefore not pose a theory of mind (Premack & Woodruff, 1978, as cited in Baron-Cohen et al., 1985) would assume that everyone else knows what they now know. The result of this study hence supports the thesis argued in this essay. Possessing a theory of mind is fundamental for social interaction with others. For those who do not have this cognitive mechanism, it is merely impossible for them to understand other people’s beliefs, wants and desires. It has been shown that autism is characterised by the lack of this cognitive mechanism, theory of mind. In addition, research studies have supported this theory, that individuals with autism lack ability to comprehend other’s beliefs from their own. Future research should aim at applying a clinical perspective to help autistic individuals overcome this lack of theory of mind in order for social interaction to be less complex.

Pornography Addiction Essay

When most people admit that they are addicted to pornography, it would most probably be internet pornography, although all other types of pornography may be valid too. The progress of pornography addiction is extremely high with access to Internet. This is because Internet provides a huge amount of unlimited pornography, with varying levels of graphic content. Internet porn addiction reaches newer levels for an individual in a quick time. Before the individual could realize the changes on himself, he would be browsing at things he would have never expected. Porn in every forms like movies, magazines and billboards produce negative effects on an individual. A sense of shock, shame and hopelessness develop within an individual which may require treatment or rehabilitation. The level of porn sought by an individual is always sequentially increased. As the addiction to porn is increased, higher level and more explicit levels of content are sought. As an individual views the porn content at a particular level for a certain amount of time, his body would gradually seek a higher and more extreme content. The body wouldn’t be satisfied with the currently viewed content and demands more (NLH, 2007). Pornography viewing would always lead to sexually gratification acts like masturbation. Masturbation is only the start of self satisfaction, as a result of pornography viewing, from where it can get worse. Pornography is an addiction like drugs, however de-addiction from pornography is considered more difficult compared to drugs. Pornography addiction is closely associated with masturbation, which has its own physical and mental health effects. The sexual organs are intended to bring pleasure when partners engage in acts of love making. However, when one is addicted to masturbation, there isn’t a bond of love with the partner, but only a bonding with ones own fantasies. Addiction to masturbation too generates sense of guilt and shame apart from making one feel unconfident in the presence of other people. Pornography and masturbation addictions only enhance and facilitate each other, and none can be stopped when the other is going steady. Even when porn is not viewed, masturbation would continue, by recollecting images stored in the head. Even after a considerable amount time is spent without pornography, and with continued masturbation, one would feel a sense of reduced arousal. The individual then starts to seek porn again. The progressive nature of pornography was identified about 25 years back by Dr. Victor Cline who maintained that an addicted person’s needs are increased both in terms of frequency and in deviancy. It is estimated that about 3 to 6% of Americans are addicted to porn. Online pornography is a major cause of divorce, which was not associated with divorce until about seven to eight years back. The justice department estimates that about 9 out of 10 children belonging to the age group of 8 to 16 have seen online pornography. Symantec, the software company has observed that about 47% of school children are recipients of daily pornographic spam (Weiss, 2005). The effects of pornography on children are evident from behavior scientist Ralph DiClemente’s observations that pornography develops to be a building block to a child’s emotional and mental development. The increasing influence of pornography on an individual is evident when an individual spends increasing amounts of time on porn content or seeks more extreme content material. Such people would require associating pornography with their real sex life. They require pornography for stimulation when engaging in sexual acts. There are several signs associated with pornography addiction which indicate development of negative and problematic effects. Worrying that others would find out your pornographic interests, feeling a sense of guilt and shame after using pornography, thinking of pornography even when not using it, are among the negative effects of pornography. With time, the use of pornography slips out of control and efforts to quit or limit pornography use would be unsuccessful (UTD, 2008). Addiction to pornography can result in neglect of responsibility or become less focused on your work or studies. Extreme use of pornography can also lead to emotional barriers with people you love and can also lead to loss of relationships. However, specialists involved in rehabilitation recommend changing routines and environments associated with pornography use and identifying the positive and negative consequences of using and avoiding pornography. Successful rehabilitation also require spending lesser time being alone; and looking for newer ways of confronting feelings like anxiety, loneliness, anger, depression and boredom. Activities that facilitate relaxation, enjoyment and refreshment should be encouraged. Mary Anne Layden, the co-director of the Sexual Trauma and psychopathology program at the Cognitive Therapy Center of University of Pennsylvania says, â€Å"Porn is the most concerning thing to psychological health that I know of existing today. The internet is a perfect drug delivery system because you are anonymous, aroused and have role models for these behaviors. To have drug pumped into your house 24/7, free, and children know how to use it better than grown-ups know how to use it — it’s a perfect delivery system if we want to have a whole generation of young addicts who will never have the drug out of their mind. † (Singel, 2004). Layden too feels that pornography addicts have a tougher time recovering from their addiction than cocaine addicts, as it is possible to get the drug out of the system for cocaine users, but it is impossible to remove pornographic images from the brain, where it would be embedded forever. To highlight the dangers of porn addiction, researchers are asking the Congress to undertake studies on porn addiction and also initiate a public campaign on the issue. At a hearing organized by the Senator Sam Brownback, anti-porn activists emphasized that Internet pornography is enticing children and hooking adults, thereby ruining families and jobs (AP, 2004). A psychologist even claimed that continued and free acccess to pronography would induce an afinity for deviated acts like group sex, sadomasochistic practices and even beastality. According to Virginia Tech professor, James Weaver, who is involved in studies on pornography impact, â€Å"We’re so afraid to talk about sex in our society that we really give carte blanche to the people who are producing this kind of material†. Weaver also pointed out that research on the impact of pornography on family and community life, is very limited. However, studies have shown that pornography addiction can lead to lowering of sexual satisfaction and loss of family values. Lost jobs, failed marriages and broken families are some of the effects attributed to Internet pornography. Internet pornography is spreading at rapid pace and all are vulnerable to this addiction. People take to pornography for several reasons including an attempt to escape the realities of life by self medication or sexual appetite. By taking to such addictions, a sense of satisfaction is obtained through the production and release of chemical substances by the brain and the body. The chemicals released by the brain and body include epinephrine, adrenaline, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), noradrenaline, norepinephrine and testosterone. Accessing pornography consistently would provide sexual arousal to the addict, such that when they are away from accessing porn for a considerable time, they suffer withdrawal symptoms (Tayder, 2006). These symptoms drive an addict desperately to seek porn, and the addict acts inappropriately to satisfy his needs. Sexual addiction or porn addiction may be defined as a condition in which any sexual behavior is associated with a recurring failure to control that behavior and its continued practice despite significant negative consequences (Goodman, 1998). The hypersexual behaviors associated with porn addiction can occur due to organic pathology. With an estimated 420 million adult content adult web pages, gone are the days when store open hours and secure hiding spaces had limited an individual’s porn activity. People who like to be always hooked up, have more at the click of their mouse. However, some specialists do not agree with the use of the word ‘addiction’ with regard to porn, preferring to use the word ‘compulsion’ instead. Although people would label themselves as porn addicts, based on outside inputs, the mental health professionals have no established standards to diagnose and calibrate porn addiction. Eric Janssen of the Kinsey Institute disapproves using the term ‘addiction’ for porn (Downs, 2005). He feels that treating them as addicts would not help them, in anyway. In this regard, Layden emphasizes that diagnosing problems like chronic gambling and substance abuse are similar to diagnoses of problematic porn use. Sex therapist Lounne Cole Weston attributes three main reasons as to why people take to pornography. They would like to act on their fantasies, avoid intimacy or just to facilitate masturbation. Sometimes people take to porn to fill up the gaps in their own sex life. For instance a person who loves oral sex and has a partner who hates it, would like to look at pictures of oral sex. Weston adds, â€Å"Then there are the people who are too embarrassed to explain what it is that they really would like to participate in, so they go there secretively, never having revealed to their mate what they would like to try†. The probability of an individual getting hooked to pornography today is much more than at any point of time, earlier. Both hard and soft pornography is much more graphic today. Adult films are easily accessible today like any other favorite film. Even music videos incorporate sex to increase their sales. TV programs now allow bikinis and semi nudes to appear freely. The sex scenes and chat shows which reveal all kinds of sexual perversions, only adds to the worsening climate on the status of porn. Just like the swim suits of today, which are more revealing, everything seems to be accepted without much complaining. During the 70s, the TV and films rarely showed people kissing. It is sad that some parents too don’t seem to be bothered by the developments. They feel that as the kids are someday going to see this, sooner or later, why not allow them now. Pornography is an important factor associated with sexual violence. The FBI report identifies hard core pornography as a common interest among serial killers. About 87% of child molesters are hardcore pornography addicts. When eight year old Jessica DeLaTorre was abducted, raped and murdered, it was committed by a porn addict, who had viewed child pornography the previous night. Many specialists agree that a very important ingredient in the development of a serial killer is fantasy. These gruesome killings are the results of such fantasies put into reality. This progress of fantasy into reality may be attributed to pornography. John Wayne Gacy had been a avid reader of homosexual magazines for which his second wife had divorced him. Pornography escalates the inner urge, which is present in all of us. This passion for sex is vastly accelerated by pornography, till the individual succumbs to satisfy that drive, without realizing what he is doing in the process. The desire for sexual gratification is dominant in all males, however killers who have not experienced sufficient intimacy in their childhood, attempt to control rather than being intimate during their sexual acts, and they begin to physically harm. The serial killer from Florida, Ted Bunty, recalled just before his execution how early exposure to pornography led him along the murderous path. He said that although he was responsible for his actions, the messages in the pornography contributed to his killings. To overcome pornography addiction, one must have a strong desire to achieve. A strong desire is important to prevent half hearted attempts producing little results. Along with a desire to change, one should also have a sense of commitment. The process of change requires commitment to the process, as the first step. There cannot be any program or instructions which can produce changes for you, when you are not committed to change. Avoid your low self-esteem from taking you back to addiction. Think positively and high of yourself, imagine yourself as a transformed new person. Understand the cause and effects phenomenon and realize that porn addiction is a syptom or effect and not the cause. The cause are the reasons which urge one to indulge in pornography. It is important to identitfy the people and places associated with biggest temptations to view porn and be extra cautious when confronting these. Like any other personal developments, porn addiction change needs to be realized in small manageable goals. Therefore one should set targets like wont be viewing porn for a week, etc.. Realizing such small goals, would provide an early onfidence and momentum. It is also important and helps significantly if the environment is adjusted to suit the deaddiction like getting rid of internet if internet is the main cause of porn viewing.

Fast Food Nation Essay

Of all non-profit organizations involved in the improvement of food handling, S. T. O. P or Safe Tables Our Priority deserved to be supported by the government as it had effectively acted as public health organization dedicated to preventing illness and death from food-borne pathogens. Since 1993, S. T. O. P had advocated changes in US public policy, widely educated and had done massive outreach, provided assistance to the victims of food-borne diseases, and implemented in-depth studies based on victims’ experience and listed them in the organizations’ registry so as for them to study the long-term consequences of food-borne disease. Historically, the organization was borne out of united anguish of parents of E. coli O157:H7 victims brought about the mishandling of foods by Jack in the Box hamburgers. Given its substantial numbers of victims, it has reached a nationwide attention of the public and the media. The group has presented itself with a clear mission of propagating food safety rules and regulations that would safeguard and inform the American populace on the seriousness of the illness. And since there was no existing organization as such, S. T. O. P. ’s membership had radically increased. Now everyone worries about the nutritional implications of excessive dining at fast-food restaurants and food safety issues. Moreover, their national visibility has soared as they were frequently contacted by media sources. Since then, new programs across the nation had run five different shows discussing meat, seafood, poultry, produce and even fruit juice safety guidelines for the sake of public education. Because of the mass media channel, food industry and legislative officials had taken action and highlighted the issue of food safety whereas before none had done at all. Through the media mileage S. T. O. P. ’s mission had a pivotal momentum as media had effectively assisted its advocacy and legislative efforts that had resulted to reform of food safety in the United States. Current food safety strategy followed by both the government and industry places far too much emphasis on consumer behavior. This over-emphasis on consumer education fosters the misleading impression that it is the consumers’ responsibility to make sure their food is safe, and if people get sick, it is their own fault. Furthermore, through their research they had found out that there were government agencies that lacked efficient communication when the said outbreak happened. They also found out that there were agencies of the government that are aware of the emerging food-borne pathogens however they lacked propagation of the knowledge nor do they have any comprehensive plan to resolve it. According to their study, the USDA (Department of Agriculture), the Congress and the media had failed to inspect these food products and aren’t aware of the massive growth in numbers of its victims. Moreover, S. T. O. P. had joined Safe Food Coalition, an organization with twelve consumer groups that advocated food safety. After several, extensive communication with USDA S. T. O. P. had became a catalyst for change as they were invited to join at policy making table and became a key player in assisting and promoting the launching of food handling inspection after ninety years. They endorsed microbial testing for animal fecal contamination like Salmonella and E. coli. They implored government agencies to reform their policies and address improved food handling. They implored that medical professional for humans and not just veterinarians to work at USDA. They implored for USDA to eradicate conflict of interest in view of the fact that both the marketing and the inspection of food handling is under the same department. In addition, the organization had promptly become the shelter of food-borne victims. They had received frequent telephone calls inquiring about the disease and S. T. O. P. had distributed packets of information from consumers to households. Members had helped try save victims and their families through anchoring various lectures for those struggling with the medical and emotional repercussions of the disease. Then in 2003, S. T. O. P. had launched a groundbreaking report entitled, â€Å"Why Are People Still Dying from Contaminated Food. † It reports the food safety challenges and their recommendations. They advocated that everyone should address the problem from the start of food handling fro instance by keeping pathogens out of the food supply. Also, they had distributed this information through mailings, newsletters and currently through E-alerts. These medium had discussed numerous food-borne diseases such as Pathogens 101, E. coli 0157:H7 bacteria, viruses like Hepatitis A and Norovirus among others, parasites from foods such as Cryptosporidium and others, other syndromes and conditions like Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS), nvCJD (Mad Cow Disease) and reactive Arthritis/Reiter’s among others, numerous miscellaneous illnesses from digested metals, toxins, prions or wasting diseases and even plastics. Suffice it to say in its endeavor to combat food-borne bacteria S. T. O. P. has had many successes as they focus on advocacy, victim support, outreach, and safe food education. For more than fifteen years they already had worked with both national and local media, responsive food industry trade groups and firms, government agencies such as the Congress, USDA, Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Health and Human Services (HHS), and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Through various television segments such as S. T. O. P. in the News, numerous newsletters, teleseminars and podcasts, press releases, media kits, special events and reports, speaking engagements, and online educational resources, the organization had brought about a drastic change in the eating lifestyle of Americans. Thus, the government should be supporting such agencies that clearly promote safety on its constituents.